1. Prescriptive Grammar:

Prescriptive grammar is a grammar giving the rules which govern how a language is supposed to be used. Those grammatical rules are normative and phrased as prohibition. In the other hand, it is a study of Normative Rules.

Eg:  Do not split an infinity, as in ‘to reluctantly leave’

Do not end a sentence with a preposition, as in ‘Who did she go with?’

Do not use plural pronoun with single antecedent, as in ‘If anyone comes in late, they should go quietly to the rear.’

Do not double modal verbs, as in ‘I might could help you.’

Do not use ‘impact’ as a verb, as in ‘This program is intended to impact the trade imbalance.’

2. Descriptive Grammar:

The aim of descriptive grammar is to describe the grammatical system of a language, that is, what users of the language unconsciously know, which enables them to use and understand the language. In the practice of  descriptive grammar,  no judgment is made about what is right or wrong. In the other hand, it is a study of Constitutive Rules.

Eg:  We can end the sentence with preposition, as in ‘Who did she go with?

We can use ‘We will’ or ‘we shall’, ‘I will’ or ‘I shall’

3. Global Sense (Wide Sense):

‘Grammar’ in this wide sense includes everything a native speaker knows about his or her language which enables him or her to speak and understand it. This includes things concerning different subjects such as morphology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, phonology, discourse analysis, and pragmatics.

4. Narrow Sense:

The grammar of a language may be understood to be a full description of the form and meaning of the sentence of the language. Basically, grammar in the narrow sense includes morphology and syntax. Morphology is concerned with the form of words, while syntax is concerned with the way words combine to form sentences.

5. Traditional Grammar:

Traditional Grammar is a term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science. Traditional grammar characteristically studies different language elements or parts of speech separately. For example, noun, verb, participles, pronoun, preposition, adverb, interjection, conjunction.

In the other hand, it is a study of language in the traditional way.

6. Intermediate Constituent Grammar: is a study of structure of  sentence, the combination of words and sentences.

This grammar studies language layers to identify the meaning. According to this grammar, language elements don’t belong to the same layer, but they belong to different layers and create different meanings.

Examples:

He  likes pleasing  women                  OR                       He  likes  pleasing  women

‘More beautiful girls are coming.’ Or ‘More beautiful girls are coming.’

6.1. Typical Feature of Intermediate Constituent Grammar: is to study how a word or sentence is composed by making successive divisions into two parts, each of which is called an intermediate constituent until all component morphemes of the word or all component words of the sentence have been isolated.

6.2. Phrase Structure: is the division of a sentence into parts, or constituents, and the division of those constituents into subparts. All sentences have hierarchical structure.

Example: simple pattern of hierarchical structure of the sentence ‘The bear went over the mountain’:

6.3. Four ways to determine phrase structure (Phrase Structure Rules):

1. Substitution criterion: what ever you can substitute a single word for, preserving grammaticality, is a constituent or phrase.

2. Movement criterion: We can move a word sequence in a sentence when we can find a paraphrase of the sentence which has the word sequence in a different place. Note that the movement criterion, since it relies on paraphrase, requires keeping the meaning the same, unlike the substitution criterion.

3. Conjoin criterion: Check if the word sequence in the sentence can be conjoined with a similar sequence.

4. Anaphora criterion: Check if the word sequence in the sentence can be the antecedent for a pro-word (i.e., a pronoun or a word with a similar function). This antecedent is anaphora.

7. Transformational Grammar:

This grammar studies basic language patterns to create and transform sentences. It tries to show, with a system of rules, the knowledge which a native speaker of a language uses in forming grammatical sentences.

For example, S=> NP + VP; VP=> V + NP

or NP1 + V + NP2=> NP2 + Aux + V_en/ed + by + NP1    (passive)

Or we have many kinds of verbal pattern:

To provide SB with ST

To accuse SB of ST

to accuse SB of doing ST

7.1. Typical feature of Transformational Generative Grammar:

Transformational Generative Grammar focuses on the description of the linguistic competence of native speaker or hearer of a language. An adequate grammar must generate the set of possible grammatical sentences in that language while excluding all ungrammatical ones. Grammatical functions (subject, direct object, ect…) are structurally derived.

Eg: transitive verb requires a following noun phrase; “kill” requires an animate object…

7.2. Transformational Rules: The phrase-structure component consists of a phrase-structure rules:

Sentence => NP + VP

NP          => DET + N + (Number)

Number  => {singular, plural}

VP          => Verb + NP

Verb       => Aux + V

Aux        => Tense + Aspect

Tense      => {past, present, future}

Aspect    => {simple, continuous/progressive, perfect, perfect continuous}

DET         => Determiner{the, a, an,…}

N            => noun {man, ball, etc.}

V            => Verb {hit, took, etc.}

…

7.3. Transformational Component (Aspect Model or Standard Theory): There are 4 main components:

- Base Component, which produces or generates basic syntactic structure called DEEP STRUCTURE.

- Transformational Component:, which changes or transform the basic structures into the sentences called SURFACE STRUCTURE.

- Phonological Component, which gives sentences a phonetic representation so that they can be pronounced.

- Semantic Component, which deals with the meaning of sentences.

8. Functional Grammar:

This grammar studies different language function. For example, ideational function, interpersonal function, textual function.

8.1. Typical Feature of Functional Grammar:

Functional Grammar focuses on the purpose and uses of language i.e. it focuses on functions rather than on structure or forms. It derives from examination of spoken and written language and the context of its use. It investigate how language is used in its effects. Its aims include revealing many of choices that language users have in interaction and showing meaning is made.

8.2. Meanings of Functional Grammar:

- Ideational Meaning: is the representation of experience: our experience of the world that lies about us, and also inside us, the world of our imagination. It is meaning in the sense of ‘content’.

The ideational function of the clause is that of representing what in the broadest sense we can call ‘processes’: actions, events, processes of consciousness, and relations…

- Interpersonal Meaning: is meaning as a form of action: the speaker or writer doing something to a listener or reader by means of language. It is the exchange of roles of English user. Different people involved in communication, the language use is also different. Eg: You gave me that egg; That egg was given to me by you; I was given that egg by you.

The interpersonal function of clause is that of  exchanging roles in rhetorical interaction: statements, questions, offers and commands, together with accompanying modalities…

- Textual Meaning: is relevance to the context: both the preceding (and following) text, and the context of situation.

The textual function of the clause is that of constructing a message.